Medieval India : South India and the Cholas

Rajaraja I

Reason — Rajaraja I, the greatest ruler of the Chola dynasty, constructed the Brihadishwara (Brihadeshwara) Temple at Tanjore (Thanjavur), which is described as the finest example of Dravidian architecture.

Provinces

Reason — The Chola kingdom was divided into six provinces called Mandalams, which were governed by governors chosen from among the members of the royal family.

Mandalams, Nadus, and Kurrams.

Reason — The Chola kingdom was divided into provinces called Mandalams, districts called Nadus and tehsils called Kurrams; the other options use terms that were not part of the Chola administrative system.

It was an assembly of local villagers in the rural administration.

Reason — The Ur was one of the four popular assemblies under the Cholas; it discussed and solved the problems at the village level, making it an assembly of local villagers in rural administration.

Brihadeshwar Temple

Reason — Rajendra Chola built his new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram, temples there, and a 16-mile-long embankment around an artificial lake. The Brihadeshwar Temple at Tanjore was built by his father, Rajaraja I.

Village : Peruntaram

Reason — Province–Mandalam, District–Nadu and Tehsil–Kurram are correctly matched administrative units. Peruntaram, however, were the higher-ranking officials of the Chola government and not a village unit, so Village–Peruntaram is the wrong pair.

Only (i) & (iii)

Reason — Statements (i) and (iii) are correct because the Central Government looked after external defence and land revenue was the main source of income. Statement (ii) is incorrect because the provinces were divided into Kottams, the Kottams into Nadus, and the Nadus into Kurrams.

Looking after towns and trade

Reason — The Nagarttar was the second popular assembly of the Cholas, which looked after trade and commerce and took steps for the promotion of trade.

All of these

Reason — The Cholas had built a strong naval fleet which helped them carry on trade with Ceylon, East Indies and Persia, so all of these are correct.

(A) and (B) are independent of each other

Explanation — Both statements are factually true — land revenue was the main source of income, fixed at one-third of the produce, and the Chola administration was based on democratic principles. However, the rate of land revenue and the democratic character of the administration are separate features and neither results from the other, so the two statements are independent of each other.

Anbil and Karandi Copper-plates

Reason — The Anbil and Karandi Copper-plates, along with the Kanyakumari stone inscription, give detailed family histories showing the Solar origin of the Chola dynasty.

Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)

Explanation — The Chola temples were indeed centres of cultural, spiritual, social and economic life of the community, so the Assertion is true. It is also true that the temples were not only places of worship. However, the Reason merely states what the temples were not; it does not explain why they became centres of socio-economic activities. Hence (R) is true but is not the correct explanation of (A).

The Chola king Rajendra Chola I adopted the title "Gangaikondachola".

The information derived from the Chola inscriptions includes the achievements of the Chola rulers, family histories, the administrative system, revenue collection, royal orders, religion, public records of property sales, mortgages and transfers, and the relations between the Cholas and Chalukyas.

Three great rulers of the Chola dynasty were Vijayalaya Chola, Rajaraja I, and Rajendra Chola I.

Rajaraja I is called 'the Great' because of his military successes, including defeating rivals like the Cheras, Pandyas, and Chalukyas, and expanding the Chola Empire. He built a powerful naval fleet, promoted trade, and constructed the Rajarajeshwara Temple at Thanjavur. His reign established the Cholas as the dominant power in southern India.

The four types of assemblies under the Cholas were: Nattar, Nagarttar, Ur, and Sabha.

Under the Cholas, land revenue was fixed at one-third of the agricultural produce.

Vijayalaya Chola established Chola rule in Tamil land, and the capital city was Thanjavur.

The Central Government looked after external defence, internal peace and order, promotion of general prosperity and cultural progress of the people.

Students learnt Sanskrit, Grammar and the Vedas in the Chola temples.

Some achievements of Rajendra Chola are:

1. Military Conquests: Rajendra Chola expanded the Chola Empire by defeating the rulers of Gondwana and the Palas of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. He assumed the title 'Gangaikondachola' after defeating Mahipala. He also conquered the Andaman, Nicobar and Malaya Islands through naval expeditions.
2. Naval Power: He maintained a strong navy and conquered the Andaman, Nicobar and Malaya Islands.
3. Administrative and Cultural Contributions: He founded Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built beautiful temples there, and constructed a 16-mile-long embankment around an artificial lake.

The Cholas had built a strong naval fleet which helped them in making conquests in Malaya and other islands in the Indian Ocean and to carry on trade with Ceylon, East Indies, Persia etc.

(a) The Vimana and Gopuram are considered key features of Chola temple architecture because:

1. Vimana: It is the towering structure above the sanctum (Garbha Griha), usually stepped and tapering towards the top. The Vimana is carved with intricate designs and sculptures, making it a striking and distinctive element of Chola temples.
2. Gopuram: The Gopuram is a lofty gate surrounding the temple. Over time, it became majestic and grew taller, adding to the grandeur of the temple’s entrance.

(b) The Chola rulers built magnificent temples such as the Brihadishwara Temple and the temples at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. They also encouraged sculpture, bronze casting, music, dance and painting. Their temples became centres of cultural, spiritual, social and economic life.

During the Chola period, several Bhakti poets from the Shaiva and Vaishnav sects composed works in Tamil and preached the path of salvation through bhakti (devotion to the deity). The Shaiva poets were called Nayanars, and the Vaishnav poets were known as Alvars.

Lands donated to temples were called Devadana. These lands were used for the maintenance of temples and religious activities. The temples became centres of cultural, spiritual, social and economic life and provided livelihood to many people.

(a) Lord Shiva is the main deity worshipped in the Brihadiswara Temple.

(b) The Brihadiswara Temple is culturally significant today due to its architectural brilliance, being an outstanding example of Dravidian architecture. It was built by Rajaraja Chola I and stands as a symbol of the Chola dynasty's grandeur. The temple is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site and continues to be a major pilgrimage center. It reflects the religious, artistic, and cultural achievements of the Cholas and remains an important cultural landmark.

(a) Rajaraja I made significant contributions to the expansion of the Chola Empire through military conquests and strategic annexations:

1. Defeating Rivals: He ended internal dissensions within the Chola dynasty and destroyed the naval fleet of the Chera dynasty. He also subdued the Pandya revolts, annexing their territory into the Chola Empire.
2. Territorial Expansion: Rajaraja I annexed large parts of Travancore, Mysore, and Coorg. He defeated the Chalukyas of Vengi and the ruler of Kalinga in the north, as well as the ruler of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the south. He also annexed the north-west part of the Ganga region.
3. Naval Power: Rajaraja built a powerful naval fleet, which helped in conquering islands in the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. His fleet also played a crucial role in maintaining trade relations with the East Indies.

(b) Some of the administrative changes introduced by Rajendra I that helped consolidate the Chola Empire are:

1. Centralized Control: While delegating power to regional governors, Rajendra I maintained centralized authority over the empire, ensuring that key decisions were made at the capital. This helped maintain unity across the diverse regions.
2. Revenue and Land Administration: He streamlined the revenue system by allocating land revenue to temples, and ensured proper collection and management of taxes from his vast territories, further stabilizing the empire’s economy.
3. Promotion of Trade and Commerce: Rajendra I promoted trade and commerce by strengthening the naval fleet, and fostering relationships with other countries. This economic prosperity helped sustain the empire's military campaigns and infrastructure projects.
4. Cultural and Religious Integration: Rajendra I promoted the construction of temples and religious centers, thus fostering cultural cohesion. His efforts in promoting art and literature helped unify the people under the Chola rule.

(c) Rajaraja I's Administrative Reforms —

1. Consolidation of Power: Ended internal conflicts, ensuring a unified empire.
2. Military & Naval Expansion: Built a strong navy, conquered islands, and maintained trade with the East Indies.
3. Territorial Expansion: Annexed regions like Pandya, Travancore, Mysore, Coorg, Ganga, and Ceylon.

Rajendra I's Administrative Reforms —

1. Expansion of the Empire: Expanded into Central India, Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, strengthening the empire.
2. New Capital: Built Gangaikonda Cholapuram and developed it with temples and a 16-mile embankment.
3. Naval Power: Like his father, maintained a strong navy, conquering the Andaman, Nicobar, and Malaya Islands.

Both rulers expanded the empire territorially, with Rajaraja consolidating the south and Rajendra pushing into central and northern India. Their naval fleets facilitated trade and defense. The construction of monumental temples and administrative centers, like Rajarajeshwara Temple and Gangaikonda Cholapuram, reinforced the empire's cultural and political strength.

The role of inscriptions like the Uttaramerur record, copper plates, and temple engravings in reconstructing the history of the Chola dynasty are:

1. The Uttaramerur inscription explains the Chola system of administration, including how villages were governed, taxes were collected, and land revenue was managed.
2. Copper-plates and the Kanyakumari stone inscription give detailed family histories, showing the Solar origin of the Chola dynasty.
3. Inscriptions on temple walls often served as public records of property sales, mortgages, and transfers.

The main features of Chola art and architecture include:

1. Dravidian Architecture: Characterized by a Vimana (towering structure above the sanctum) with stepped, tapering storeys, and Gopuram (lofty gates). Temples also featured pillared halls and large enclosures.
2. Iconic Temples: The Brihadiswara Temple in Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja I, is a prime example, known for its grand scale, granite construction, and 66-meter tall Vimana.
3. Artistic Features: Temples were adorned with frescoes and sculptures of deities, mythological scenes, and dancers. The monolithic Nandi statue (6 meters long) is a key example of Chola artistry.
4. Engineering Techniques: The Cholas used interlocking stones without mortar and achieved precise alignment, showcasing advanced construction skills.
5. Cultural Centers: Temples also served as centers for Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music, integrating art, culture, and religion.

(a) Monuments and inscriptions played a vital role in preserving and recording the achievements of the Chola rulers. The monuments and inscriptions served as official records of the king's military victories, territorial annexations, and architectural contributions. They helped communicate the rulers greatness and religious devotion, and provided valuable historical evidence about the Chola empire's territorial expanse, cultural practices, and administration. The inscriptions also highlighted the contributions of the Chola rulers to art, architecture, and religion, thus solidifying their legacy.

(b) During the Chola period, Tamil literature flourished, with significant contributions in both religious and secular works:

1. Bhakti Poetry: Nayanars (Shaiva poets) and Alvars (Vaishnava poets) wrote devotional poetry, which was compiled into the Tirumurais, considered the Fifth Veda.
2. Key Literary Works:

• Kamban wrote the Tamil Ramayana, a monumental work.
• Pugalandi Pulavar created Nala Venba, known for its simplicity and sweetness.
• Jayamkondar authored Kalingattuparani.

3. Court Poets: Poets like Vikramachola in the courts of Kulotunga I and Rajaraja II further enriched Tamil literature.
4. Grammar and Jain Contributions: Scholars like Buddhamitra wrote on grammar, and Jain poet Kundakunda made significant contributions to Tamil literature.

(c) Trade and commerce played a crucial role in the prosperity of the Chola Empire. The Cholas maintained a powerful naval fleet, which enabled them to control trade routes in the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. They established trade relations with regions like the East Indies, and Southeast Asia. The export of goods brought wealth to the Chola kingdom. This economic prosperity allowed the Cholas to fund their military campaigns, build monumental temples, and support cultural activities. Additionally, trade contributed to the growth of cities and the development of infrastructure, including canals, roads, and harbors, which further facilitated economic growth. Thus, the Chola's dominance in trade played a key role in sustaining their empire's economy and cultural development.